Pronouns

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MECUM etc. became micum in vulgar Latin, influenced by the dative pronoun MĪ. This gave rise to - migo (conmigo) in Castilian. Nominative and accusative forms NOS and VOS survived alone into the Middle Ages, when the ending - otros - 'others' -  (nosotros, vosotros) evolved. In the nominative case, nos survived in contrived, ceremonial style only but vos was not lost in American Spanish, where it is still a common subject pronoun. Early forms conmusco and convusco bit the dust in mediaeval times, but Portuguese counterparts connosco and convosco survived. Genitive forms disappeared altogether, being replaced by possessive adjectives.

The -otros or 'others' tag survives today in Castilian Spanish, Aragonese and Catalan in all circumstances, occasionally in Italian and French e.g. 'nous autres français', but is never found in Portuguese.

In Castilian reflexive imperatives, vos had become -os by the end of the fifteenth century (e.g. lavadvos > lavaos): the v was fairly weak and the fricative d was lost. The only exception to this rule is idos, 'go away'.

Latin had no third-person pronouns; this situation was resolved in the main with recourse to various demonstratives - e.g. IS, EA, ID etc.

ĬLLE > (Old Castilian) elle > elli (twelfth century) > él (apocopy)

ĬLLA(M) > ella (>la)

Loss of the first syllable in the latter case is known as aphaeresis.

ĬLLǓD > ello > lo (Castilian direct weak object pronoun). The genitive form ILLIUS disappeared but the dative did persist:

ILLĪ > le (li in Old Castilian). This leísmo spread also to the masculine weak direct object pronoun. In modern Castilian, le is supposed to be used for the direct object form where people are concerned, and lo for things. But Spain is a very anarchic country both culturally and linguistically and in practice, lo is used even as an indirect object. In combination, se lo took the following route:

[shelo > zelo > selo > se lo].

In mediaeval times one often encountered the intermediate stage, gelo, which is to be found for example in el Çid.

The Castilian personal pronomial plurals ellos and ellas, just as los and las, are derived from the Classical Latin demonstratives ĬLLOS and ĬLLAS. The genitive plural ĬLLŌRUM became the possessive pronoun leur in French; Old French leures was pluralised by analogy, with no Latin precedent.

In Spanish,

mío libro > mi libro (apocopy in proclisis)

míe case > mía casa > mi casa (the high palatal í raises the following a to e before it is lost.)

Old Castilian forms use the definite article (el mío libro, la mía casa), and French and Spanish are the only Romance languages to shed it entirely. In the plural (los míos libros), one might have expected the final -s to protect the preceding -o. This does not happen, however, due to analogy with the singular.

Old Castilian masculine possessives to and so, and feminine forms tue and sue became tu and su.

NŎSTRU > nuestro (Old Spanish nuesso)

VĔSTRU/VŎSTRU (Latin analogy)  > vuestro (Old Spanish vuesso)

HĬ/ĪC > este, ĬSTE > ese, ĬLLE > aquel yielded semantic equivalents; IS, EA and ID became monosyllabic in Castilian for lack of supporting consonants.

The Spanish for but, pero, came from PER HOC, 'by this thing' (HOC was equivalent to ello in meaning).

The ablative/prepositional case in Latin behaved as follows in Catilian:

HAC HORA > agora > ahora

HOC ANNO > (h)ogaño (O.C.)

HAC NOCTE > anoche (or, arguably AD NOCTEM > anoche)

HOC DIE > HODĬE > hoy (c.f. the French aujourd'hui, literally 'on the day of today'.

Languedoc came from Langue d'oc (HOC)

Langue d'oïl (>oui 'yes': oui < hoc illu)

Back in Castilian, ĬSTE > este, ĬPSE > ese (IPSE meant 'self' originally, but twinned semantically with IDEM; both original and former functions of IPSE were taken over by mismo in Castilian). ĬLLE > ACCU + ĬLLE > aquel; ECCE 'behold, voilà' became eccolo/la, 'here he/she is' in Italian. In mediaeval Castilian, este and aqueste ran alongside esse and aquesse; ACCU + ĬSTE > ce, cet (etc.) in French. Early Romance alternatives included es, est, essi and esti.

Mismo and mesmo (common in Spanish dialects and South America, c.f. the French, même) are both interesting and unusual in their phonological and semantic development:

ĔGO ĬPSE (I myself)

ĔGOMET ĬPSE (suffix added) > METĬPSE (self) > medés (Old Castilian for self); METĬPSIMU (absolute superlative postulate form) > meesmo (Old Castilian) > meismo (dissimilation) > mismo/mesmo.

Few Latin indefinite pronouns and adjectives have survived into modern Castilian:

ŪNU > un(o)

'ALT(E)RU > otro

'ALĬUD > al (Old Castilian, 'other things').

NŪLLU, A > nul, nulla (takes the role of ninguno/a in mediaeval texts).

TŌTU (whole, entire) > todo (all); OMNI > ogni ('all' in Italian)

ad ogni modo: de todos modos

ad ogni caso: en todo caso

ALI QUOD

NEC + UNO > ninguno

ALIQU + UNO > alguno

kάtα > cada

(RĔM)NATA(M) > nada ('thing born'; c.f. French rien).

HOM(I)NE NATU > omne nado (Old Castilian) > nado > nadien (influenced by quien) > nadie

'Nadien' is still found in dialect. The final 'n' disappeared through dissimilation with the initial 'n': one would expect to find nadie in dialect and nadien in standard Spanish, but this is not what happened.

The Latin prefix for 'some' (ALIQU) merged with quien to form alguién in Old Castilian, and the mediaeval form of the modern ninguién was ninguém. 'ALT(E)RU > otrien, otrie, otri ('other people'), counterparts of the French autrui.

ĬLLE gave rise to a definite article in all Romance languages, but in the case of the variety of Catalan Spoken in Mallorca, the definite article actually comes from ĬPSE (mallorquí dialect).

ILLE > el, ell + vowel (very old Castilian) > el

ILLA > ela, ell + vowel (very old Castilian) > la, el (+'a' in el alma etc.)

ILLUD > elo, lo > lo

ILLOS > elos, los > los

ILLAS > elas, las > las

elos and elas were primary forms in Castilian until the eleventh/twelfth centuries.